NBSC: Introducing Biotechnology:
What is Biotechnology?
The meaning of the word "Biotechnology" derives form the words:
bios=life,
teuchos=tool and
logos=study of
or essence.
Thus the word literally means: the
study of tools from living things. Biotechnology is the
application of scientific and engineering principles to the processing of
materials by biological agents to provide goods and services.
Modern definition -
Biotechnology is the application of technologies,
such as recombinant DNA techniques, biochemistry, molecular and cell biology,
genetics and genetic engineering, and cell fusion techniques etc. using living organisms or its products, to
manufacture industrial products including antibiotics, insulin, and interferon,
to improve plants or animals, to develop microorganisms for specific uses, to
identify targets for pharmaceutical development, to transform biological
systems into useful processes and products or to develop organisms for specific
uses. In the modern definition, the focus of biotechnology is so much not the principle of using organisms to do things but
the techniques for doing so. E.g.: DNA
sequencing, PCR, cloning genes, cloning animals.
Thus
Biotechnology is the applied use of molecular
biology and recombinant DNA technology to influence specific biological
processes largely related to meeting human needs.
What is
Biotechnology?
Biotechnology has been around almost as long as the human
species. Early humans depended on plants and animals for food, clothing,
shelter and fuel. The change from hunting and gathering as a way of life to an
agrarian lifestyle led to selective breeding of plants and animals. The first
attempts at agriculture involved the spreading of seeds on the ground and the
harvesting of the plants that grew from them. Over time they noticed that
certain plants from the same species had superior characteristics. Some
produced a greater yield; some were better tasting, while others were more
resistant to adverse environmental conditions. By selecting
seeds from these desirable plants they were able to produce a
greater amount of high quality food. Similar practices led to the development
of many breeds of domestic animals. For example the domestic cow has been
developed to be a docile animal, which has good milk or meat production. The
biological processes of microorganisms were used for 6,000 years to make useful
food products, such as bread and cheese, and to preserve dairy products and
crops.
Early examples of biotechnology involved manipulating entire
organisms. Today it is possible to manipulate organisms at the molecular
level. During the 1960s and '70s our understanding of biology reached a
point where began the use of the smallest parts of organisms, their cells and
molecules, in addition to using whole organisms. The biological molecules most
often used are nucleic acids, such as DNA, and proteins. Our concept of the
gene has changed from that of particles or "unit characters" to that
of segments of the DNA molecule. Bioengineering involves the manipulation
of specific genes. For example the gene for human growth hormone can be
extracted and inserted into bacteria that will in turn manufacture the hormone.
Better meaning of the word
biotechnology can be derived by simply changed singular noun to its plural
form="biotechnologies", because biotechnology is a collection of
technologies using cells and biological molecules.
Cells and molecules are
extraordinarily specific in their interactions. Because of this specificity,
the tools and techniques of biotechnology are quite precise and are tailored to
operate in known, predictable ways. As a result, the products of biotechnology
will be better targeted to solving specific problems, generating lesser side
effects and having fewer unintended consequences. Specific, precise, and
predictable are the words that best describe today's biotechnology.
What are some technologies included in Biotechnology?
Following
technologies are commonly included in Biotechnology:
Cell and Tissue Culture:
Large numbers of plant and animal cells in laboratory
situations, when placed in appropriate environmental conditions, with required
nutrients, most cell types will multiply. This technology has
applications in a number of situations. For example:
Genetic
Modification or recombinant DNA technology:
Genetic Modification Technology is often referred to as recombinant DNA
technology. The ability to modify genetic information
provides a strong foundation for the biotechnology. In genetic
modification, single genes whose functions are known are moved from one
organism to another using recombinant DNA technology. A
sample of techniques in recombinant DNA methods includes: gene isolation and
amplification, site-directed mutagenesis, viral infection, and plasmid
construction. Currently genetic modifications are used to produce high
yielding, disease and pest resistant varieties of crops, new and safer vaccines
and drugs and biodegradable plastics.
Genetic Engineering Technology:
The joining of genetic material from two different organisms
or genetic recombination occurs naturally as part of reproduction. When
humans started selective breeding they were manipulating the genetic material
of the offspring. This practice was restricted to closely related
species. Today, a single gene with known function can be removed form one
organism and transferred to a totally different organism. Thus by
introducing new genetic instructions that would cause the cell to produce
needed chemicals, or carry out useful processes, or give the organism desirable
characteristics. For example, hemophiliacs benefit
from this technology because genetically engineered bacteria are being used to
produce large quantities of Factor VIII, a protein involved in the blood
clotting process.
Protein
Engineering Technology:
It is used in
conjunction with genetic modification to improve existing proteins, usually
enzymes, and to create proteins not found in nature. These new and improved
proteins will encourage the development of ecologically sustainable industrial
processes because they are renewable and biodegradable resources. The chemical,
textiles, pharmaceutical, pulp and paper, food and feed, metal and minerals and
energy industries have all benefited from cleaner, more energy-efficient
production made possible by incorporating biocatalysts into their production
processes.
Antisense
Technology:
Antisense technology is the process of creating synthetic
segments of DNA or RNA, called oligonucleotides. Antisense molecules are
designed to interact with mRNA before it can be translated into the amino
acids, which make up proteins. In this way, disease-associated proteins can be
prevented from even forming. These molecules are called antisense, because they
are the opposite of the "sense" of the original RNA or DNA. Therapeutic intervention using ANTISENSE compounds is
visualized as universal strategy to treat diseases whose causative agents or
targets have been characterized at the DNA level. ANTISENSE technology is a
powerful research tool for protein function analysis as well as for validation
of therapeutic drug targets. Area of applications include, control of viral
diseases, inhibition of inflammation and other diseases, slowing of food
spoilage etc.
Monoclonal
Antibody Technology
It uses a type of immune system cell that makes proteins
called antibodies. Antibodies exhibit extraordinary specificity. The
specificity of antibodies makes them powerful tools for locating substances
that occur in minuscule amounts and measuring them with great accuracy. A monoclonal antibody is a type of
antibody produced from a single cell known as a hybridoma. All antibodies
produced by the hybridoma are identical and bind to the same specific target in
the same way. Monoclonal Antibody technology uses the
specifity of antibodies in a variety of ways. They include treating
various diseases, and detecting the presence of drugs, bacteria, viruses,
abnormal cells, food contaminants and environmental pollutants.
Biosensor Technology:
Biosensor technology couples biological method with
microelectronics. A biosensor is composed of a biological component, such as a
cell or antibody, linked to a tiny transducer. Biosensors are detecting devices
that rely on the specificity of cells and molecules to identify and measure
substances at extremely low concentrations. When the substance of interest
collides with the biological component, the transducer produces a digital
electronic signal proportional to the concentration of the substance. Biosensors
are used to measure many blood components, to measure safely of food and
measure environmental pollutants.
DNA
Fingerprinting and Diagnostic Techniques:
Different people have different DNA sequences (except
identical twins). DNA is first extracted from a tissue sample.
Various enzymes are then used to cut the DNA at specific sites, into segments
of different lengths. Because different people have different DNA
sequences they will give rise to different sets of DNA fragments. Gel
electrophoresis is then used to separate the fragments, which moves according
to their size. This pattern can then be compared to a crime scene sample
fingerprint or other known source. This technique is also used in gene
mapping (locating genes on the chromesome). It is possible to detect recessive
genes in healthy people (carriers). Genetic counselors can advise these
people about the risks of passing such genes on to their children.
Biodegradation:
Various microorganisms are vital to any ecosystem. They break down
organic material and return it to the soil for recycling. Composting is
thus one of the oldest examples of environmental biotechnology. Modern
environmental biotechnology is making use of microorganisms and enzymes to
clean up problems such as oil spills and toxic waste sites, and to purify
sewage.
Conclusion:
The biotechnology industry is the oldest industry on the
earth that continues to grow in current times. The benefits from newer
technologies include solving world food shortages and the elimination of
many diseases. The prospects of gene therapy, fixing defective genes in humans,
will open up an entirely new avenue for disease treatment and prevention. It is
now possible to detect genetic defects and genetic predispositions even in
unborn children. The application of bioremediation will see extensive growth as
cheap and effective means for cleaner environment. The biotechnology industry
is sure to play a major role in the future development of man. However, as with
all other technologies there is also a dark side. The release of
genetically engineered organisms may cause environmental imbalances. With the
growth of biotechnology comes great responsibilities and ethical choices are to
be appreciated.